Globalization can be defined as a “process of increasing interconnectedness between societies such that events in one part of the world more and more have effects on peoples and societies far away” (Smith, Owen, & Baylis 2014, p. 9). From this definition, we can highlight the four factors that led to globalization (McGrew 2014):

– Expansion of social, political and economic activities that affect more and more people across the world;
– Intensification of relations between and among peoples;
– Acceleration of the pace of interaction between and among peoples, institutions, and other groups; and
– Escalation of the dynamism and interdependence between global and local actors.

Three attitudes toward Globalization (Giddens 2006; Held 1999). The anti-globalists, or skeptics, claim that the changes that we are seeing nowadays are nothing new. They are in fact just part of a process that began centuries ago and that the globalization of the present age is more of a hype or an exaggerated representation of economic, political, and social changes. This can be explained by the relatively intense movement and flow of information brought by new technologies and new imperatives to roam around the globe, but this by no means entails any substantial transformation or changes in our society. Despite the changes at the international level, anti-globalists still believe in the power of nation-states in handling real-world problems that affect different peoples across the globe.

This view is contradicted by the more optimistic and positive looking hyperglobalists who sincerely believe that globalization is happening and here to stay. It has changed and is still changing our society today, causing the development of new ways of life, culture, practices, and beliefs that reflect the contemporary and modern character of peoples across the globe. For them, because of the ever-increasing reach of global actors and stakeholders, modern states and political actors are slowly losing their power over issues that affect people. New entities, such as global market actors and non-state actors are taking over the role of helping the people create a new sense of order based on mutual understanding and trust with one another.

In between the two are the transformationalists. They are people who believe that globalization is real but that there are things that remain constant in the midst of rapid changes and shifts—like the states and its power as found in the government. States are here to stay because of their central role in politics; they have to adapt and make themselves relevant all the time. To transformationalists, instead of merely seeing the world as a half-full or half-empty glass of water, they would rather focus on the messy, interactive, and dynamic transformations going on around us. They are interested in pinpointing the dual effects of globalization and parochialization, or localization, and they shape our societies these days.

Contemporary social scientists and experts have devised ways to make sense of globalization.

The three waves of globalization tell us of the three main periods whereby societies have transformed toward a single global phenomenon (McGrew, 2014). The First Wave (1450-1850) saw territorial and political expansion through conquest of known European countries. The Second Wave (1850-1945) witnessed the spread of imperial control of European empires across the globe and the advent of the industrial revolution. The Third Wave (1960s onwards) shows us the ongoing transformations brought by the information age and digital interaction.

The three-world system is a system of classifying countries used in the twentieth century based on the level of development (Giddens, 2006). Here, first world is understood as countries that have free-market and capitalist economic systems; they are industrialized as shown in their high level of income, specialization of skills, and mass production and manufacturing of goods.; second world is the classification used to include countries that have centralized and nationalized economic systems; they are usually found in the former communist societies with strong state intervention in the economy; third world is used to classify societies that have weak and developing economies. This is found among former colonies who gained independence and rely heavily on their agriculture and have low or middle levels of income. However, these nations still have neocolonial ties with their former colonies, and therefore socio-economic conditions in third world countries are subject to the influence of their previous colonizers (Crook, 1992). It should also be noted that using “third world” to define nations is considered derogatory.

Patterns of Globalization speak of the major areas of globalization since its emergence up to the present time. First, economics is probably one of the main areas of modern-day globalization due to the tremendous effects of the changes in the economic institutions, practices, dynamics, processes and outcomes. This can be seen in the emergence of the global markets, transnational corporations and entities, and eventually, ‘global informational capitalism’ (McGrew, 2014). Second, the military area involves the growth and expansion of the operations of the security sector as a response to the growing concerns over weapons of mass destruction, terrorism, and renegade states(McGrew, 2014). Third is the legal area. This speaks of the growing importance of having international law to govern transactions, trade, and interactions from institutions and actors (McGrew 2014). Fourth, the ecological area tells us of the imperative to protect ecosystems against the widespread and appalling environment abuse from industries and governments (McGrew, 2014). Issues such as climate change, overfishing, and forest depletion, among others, necessitated a rapid and collective response from states to mitigate the effects of natural calamities, disasters, environmental disasters, etc. Fifth is the cultural area. This area is concerned with the changes in lifestyle, practices, ways of life, beliefs, etc. brought by the incessant movement of ideas from media and movement of people themselves (McGrew, 2014). Lastly, the social area, or the embodied movement, refers to the phenomenon of migration of peoples for work, education, and new settlements (McGrew, 2014).

Migration first and foremost should be understood as an embodied movement of peoples. For millennia, people have traveled or migrated from one place to another in search of new places to settle, new communities to build or integrate into, and new resources to utilize.

Types of migration (National Geographic Society, n.d.). There are two types of migration based on place: Internal migration is the movement of people within a specific place or territory like a state, country, or continent; External migration is the movement of people to a different territory or place such as to a different country or continent. There are three types of people who migrate: an emigrant is a person who leaves one country to go to another; an immigrant is a person who moves into a new state or country; a refugee is a person who is forced to leave their country because of a crisis in their home country.

Motivations for migration (National Geographic Society, n.d.). There are two main reasons why people migrate. Push factors tell us of the motivations people have when they migrate due to lack of food, armed conflict, disasters, and impending crisis, among others things. These factors are prone to societies that have famine, civil wars, are prone to natural disasters, or major political or economic crises. Pull factors, on the other hand, include motivations that are connected to better conditions, opportunities, resources, etc. in the host country. People are motivated to migrate because of the good climate, job opportunities, and more health benefits in the host country.

Source: International Organization for Migration, 2018

Waves of migration in the Philippines tell us of the different periods of migration in the Philippines. The First Wave happened during the pre-colonial and Spanish colonial eras. The earliest recorded Filipino migration was in 1417 when a mission to travel to China was sanctioned by Sultan Paduka Batara (Center for Migrant Advocacy, n.d.). This expedition of royalties from Sulu, it was said, was meant to improve the trade and diplomatic relations with China. This was followed by the migration of Filipinos working as seafarers to Mexico during the Spanish colonial era. During that time, too, Filipinos settled in the United States to work in California as fruit pickers (Center for Migrant Advocacy, n.d.). In the nineteenth century, Filipino migrants started to appear in Europe for education, work, and new residences (Center for Migrant Advocacy, n.d.).

The Second Wave of migration took place during the time of the American colonial era, which saw the intensification of the embodied movement of Filipinos to work in the US (Center for Migrant Advocacy, n.d.). This happened in 1906 in sugar plantations in Hawaii (where 100,000 Filipinos were sent from 1906 to 1934 to work as fruit pickers) and later on in Alaska for their growing fish cannery industry.

The Third Wave of migration happened after the Second World War, with the growth of Filipino service men working in the US Navy and migration of Filipino workers and professionals to Asian societies in the 1950s (Center for Migrant Advocacy n.d.). During this time, many Filipinos traveled to Sabah and Sarawak for their logging industry. Some Filipinos went to Vietnam, Thailand and Guam and worked in the US military bases during the war in Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos).

Source: Commission on Filipino Overseas, 2019

Types of Filipino Migrants. Filipinos who migrate are categorized based on their status in their host country. The first type are the permanent migrants. This category includes Filipino immigrants, legal permanent residents and naturalized citizens of the host country. The second type are the temporary migrants. Migrants who are under this category stay in their host country for a certain period of time. They are referred to nowadays as Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs). The third type are the irregular migrants. People who belong to this category have lost their legal status to work and are usually without valid residence or work permits. They are also known as overstaying workers/tourists in their host country. According to the recent government data, there are two types of Filipino migrants scattered across the globe: Employed and Unemployed (Commission on Filipino Overseas 2019).

Employed:
– Professional, Technical, and related workers
– Managerial, Executive, and Administrative workers
– Clerical workers
– Sales workers
– Service workers
– Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Forestry workers, and Fisherfolks
– Production process, transport equipment operators, and laborers
– Members of the Armed Forces

Unemployed:
– Housewives
– Retirees
– Students
– Minors
– Out-of-school youth
– Refugees

In the past five years, there are more Filipino female migrants who migrated abroad than their male counterparts (see data below). This goes to show that more and more women are inclined to move to other countries for better opportunities (either temporarily or permanently).

Source: Commission on Overseas Filipinos, 2019

Migration and Filipino society. Upon closer look, migration in the Philippines is a labor-oriented phenomenon. This tells us that work is a major motivation for migration. Filipinos still look for work abroad for more opportunities, and better pay, especially since the rates of unemployment and underemployment are not decreasing. This is due to the recent growth of emigrant workers from other countries who are mostly in the business process outsourcing (BPO) industry in the country. For instance, the recent influx of emigrants who are working in the Philippine Offshore Gaming Operations (POGO) and some government infrastructure projects has created an additional employment deficit for Filipino workers these days (Robles, 2018). Since the third wave of migration began, families of the temporary migrants such as seafarers and OFWs have been torn and separated for decades (Center for Migrant Advocacy n.d.-b). Also, Filipinos abroad do not receive enough protection from their host countries in terms of labor standards, work conditions and benefits (Center for Migrant Advocacy n.d.-b). In the latest data from a 2019 survey of OFWs, there are 2.2 million OFWs deployed in various parts of the globe (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2020). The total remittance from April to September of 2019 was Php 211.9 billion, Php 157.9 billion of which was sent home, Php 46.7 billion was personally brought home, and Php 7.3 billion was distributed as in-kind donations (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2020).

Also, migration is a gendered phenomenon. This means that women are more inclined to work as OFWs due to the lack of opportunities available to them, the skills and training that they can access, and the roles and responsibilities in the household designated to them. Majority of our women OFWs are working in the service sector as domestic helpers and other low-skilled workers. Most of the time, they end up in deregulated working environments, adding to the possibility of being exposed and becoming more vulnerable not just to poor working conditions, but also inhumane conditions, exploitation, and sexual abuse (Center of Migrant Advocacy n.d.-b). In 2019, the total proportion of female migrants (56%) was higher than male (44%). Unfortunately, women are more exposed to violence and unjust practices abroad compared to their male counterparts. In the past several decades, many OFWs were victimized by their employers—human trafficking, rape, domestic abuse, and deprivation of work compensation.

Migration is also a cultural phenomenon. Migration has exposed Filipinos to new ways of life, beliefs, practices, norms, etc., that have shaped our culture. Filipino migrants have welcomed new ideas and practices that have enriched and augmented their identity and personality. For instance, Filipinos who marry foreigners create a family that has mixed beliefs, practices, and norms. While other societies in various parts of the globe are attaining multiculturalism, cosmopolitanism, tolerance, and general relativism, Filipinos have also influenced societies abroad to have a renewed interest toward religion, sense of close family ties, and other unique cultural practices. In some western societies, Filipinos have been noted for being frequent church-goers and active in the activities of their parishes. This has led to the integrating Filipino community faith-based practices (like ‘Simbang Gabi’) to their host countries’ practices (singing community ‘Christmas Carols’) (Mendiola, 2018).

Migration has also motivated or induced migrant workers and their families to undergo changes based on the social environment, or perhaps bring them to a shift in cultural aspects. For example, exposure to the language in a foreign country helps the Filipino migrant worker in acquiring an additional knowledge and immersion to the host country’s culture and society (Meniado, 2019). Adhering to the culture of the host country is driven by the survival of the migrant worker in a foreign setting. Absorption of certain behavior or other elements of culture may also extend to their families, with whom the migrant workers may share anecdotes, advice or practices concerning their host country during communications or visits.

On the other hand, migration, including globalization and industrialization, have disrupted traditional Filipino family relations (Alampay & Jocson, 2011; McKay, 2012, cited by Lam & Yeoh, 2019). Migrant women are subject to critique as they have “disregarded their child-caring duties” at home, and at the same time to commendation as they provide substantial income to their families. The dichotomy of gender in terms of parenting is very pronounced in the Philippines, hence care work is still greatly delegated to the mothers, despite the multiple burdens that they are carrying. Due to the absence of the mother, children may go through unconventional processes of socialization.